Loss and Redemption in George Sand's Mauprat

            "Man is born with more or less of passions, with more or less power to satisfy them, with more or less capacity for turning them to a good or bad account in society" (Sand 414).This passage from George Sand's Mauprat reflects the author's sentiment concerning fate and free will. As the aged Bernard Mauprat recounts the events of his life, the elderly protagonist traces the stages of his moral transformation from his youthful exposure to unwarranted brutality to one of virtue and refinement. Sand sets her tale of love and revenge during the upheaval of the French Revolution as man's quest for freedom and equality challenge the abuses of feudal privilege and tradition (14). Sand's appeal for ethics on a universal level plays a singularly important role in the main character's quest for love and acceptance. Choosing to rescue the beautiful Edmee Mauprat from the cruel machinations of his uncle in the Castle Roche Mauprat during a skirmish with the authorities, young Bernard realizes that he can no longer return to his first home but must protect Edmee, even at the cost of his life (73). This choice marks the initial phase of his coming-of-age. After wandering fearfully through the dark forest amid gunfire and altercations, the couple finds refuge in the abode of Patience the hermit who provides them shelter until they reach the home of Edmee's father Hubert. Sand describes Hubert as "the chevalier, because he belonged to the Order of the Knights of Malta: a man just as good as his cousin [John] was bad" (7). Bernard falls in love with the young lady whose virtue and charm appear foreign to him. Although Edmee realizes that Bernard's heart is sincere, she rejects his passionate appeals because she knows at this stage of his life, the young ruffian only understands the physical but not the emotional or spiritual nature of love. Only by adopting these virtues can Bernard hope to win Edmee's heart. This phase denotes the second challenge in the hero's quest of the spirit. The protagonist must undergo a form of psychological death-and-rebirth as he slowly casts aside his former vices in order to assume the cloak and habit of respectability. Like Rousseau, to whom she frequently alludes, Sand strongly suggests that education plays the principal role in the subject's individuation. Bernard's final words as he recalls the events of his life reflect the author's sentiment:"Education can and must find a remedy for everything; that is the great problem to be solved, to discover the education best suited to each individual" (414-415).

             The hero's transformation does not prove an easy task, however. Like Dostoyevsky's brothers Karamazov, the young man must overcome more than physical brutality, an acquired trait. He must, like Dmitri and Alyosha, wage a psychological war against a familial predisposition toward violence. Edmee tells Bernard on several occasions that it is in the Mauprat blood to kill, and he must always be wary of that tendency toward hostility and aggression (409). In another instance, Edmee tells him that they are "both victims of a vicious family" (99).Bernard himself admits, "My grandfather was that old Tristan de Mauprat who ran through his fortune, dishonored his name, and was such a blackguard that his memory is already surrounded by a halo of the marvelous" (7). Sand uses the Evil Genius Archetype to characterize John Mauprat. As her persona, the main character describes his uncle in the following passage: "Old Mauprat was a treacherous animal of the carnivorous order, a cross between a lynx and a fox. Along with a copious and easy flow of language, he had a veneer of education which helped his cunning. He made a point of excessive politeness, and had great powers of persuasion, even with the objects of his vengeance. He knew how to entice them to his castle, where he would make them undergo frightful ill-treatment, for which, however, having no witnesses, they were unable to obtain redress by law . . . In truth, he was a man with a genius for evil; and his sons, bound to him by no ties of affection . . . gave him a uniform and ready obedience, in which there was something almost fanatic" (16). As a result of his being kidnapped and living with these scoundrels since he was seven, Bernard must consequently war against both acquired and inherited tendencies toward violence. As Bernard tells the narrator of the story, "When one has to struggle for forty or fifty years to transform one's self from a wolf into a man, one ought to live a hundred years longer to enjoy one's victory" (5). The animal imagery clearly suggests the destructive nature of his initial personality. The wolf in the dark forest constitutes a familiar image throughout the folklore of Europe. Sand's use of it adds to the savage connotation. Like Freud's Id, the beast within represents the uncontrollable, instinctual impulses that must be sublimated in order for emotional growth to occur. Repression merely leads to disorder, not improvement; this is why Bernard's transformation must be complete and unequivocal, not superficial. In essence, the author's faith in the human capacity to direct one's passion into productive channels constitutes the theme of the story. Sand expresses this optimism in Bernard's statement that he "would order that man to have his tongue torn out, or his head cut off, who dared to preach or write that the nature of individuals is unchangeable." Speaking through Bernard, the author poses the question: "Are our innate tendencies invincible? If not, can they be modified merely or wholly destroyed by education?" (19). Sand furthermore expresses her faith in man's ability to transform the evil in his life into something good, Bernard suggests this notion when he recalls the cruelty of John Mauprat and his sons: "My ill-fortune preserved me from indifference in the presence of evil, and my sufferings helped me to detest those who wrought it" (20). This attitude denotes the next significant phase in the hero's coming-of-age. The main character tells the narrator that "in the absence of all ordinary moral principles, it has been natural" for him to adopt the despicable practices of his caretakers, or even the idea that might is right, but the very opposite outcome occurs. As a result of the "humiliation and suffering" inflicted upon him from such a theory, Bernard refuses to share in their villainy, or their ideology (22). Because of the villainy of his Uncle John and his sons, the name Mauprat itself instills fear in the hearts of inhabitants. "The peasants still believe,," Bernard says, that my Grandfather Tristan's "ghost appears, either in the body of a wizard who shows malefactors the way to the dwellings of Varenne, or in that of an old white hare which reveals itself to people meditating some evil deed" (7). Sand, in this case, suggests that man must never succumb to the forces of superstition or fate. Bernard ultimately succeeds, though the struggle requires years of self-discipline. The hero's quest of the spirit from innocence to awareness ends with his determination "to demolish his manor as a sign of the horror aroused in him by the recollection of childhood" (3). Now at eighty-four years of age and the last of his family, the hero recalls committing that very act, an act of the will representing his complete break with the cruel associations of his youth.

                Sand presents her Romantic tale of loss-and-redemption in the Gothic tradition by opening it in the dark forests of Varenne surrounding a ruined chateau buried "in everlasting obscurity" (1). The "gnarled trunks and rubbish" barring the way to this "gloomy castle "create a mood of fear and superstition. Like the ominous castles in Walpole's Otranto, Shelley's Frankenstein, and Stoker's Dracula, Roche-Mauprat harbors secret passageways, ghostly specters, and horrifying memories of unforgiven crimes. Sand adds to the forbidding atmosphere by suggesting a sinister presence in the castle, a presence scorned by villagers during the day but dreadfully feared as twilight dims; for then the "goat-sucker begins to screech from the top of the loopholes, wood-cutter and charcoal-burner pass by silently, with quickened step, and cross themselves from time to time to ward off the evil spirits that hold sway among the ruins" (3). The peasants, in essence, fear the unknown occurrences of the dark forest just as the villagers with the Evil Eye. In this context, Sand uses the light and dark imagery to enhance the sense of spiritual isolation, In his youth, Bernard even admits that the villagers "classed the name of Mauprat with those of Cartouche and Bluebeard; and in the course of horrible dreams [he] often used to mix up the ancient legends of the Ogre and the Bogey with the quite recent events which in [his] province had given such a sinister luster to this Mauprat family" (2). Like Coleridge's mariner who sins by killing the albatross, the aged Bernard feels spiritually compelled to "unfold his somber tale" in order to atone for his past misdeeds and hopefully attain a measure of inner peace and forgiveness. This is his penance. Like the hero in Doyle's Hound of the Baskervilles, Bernard must account for the mysterious occurrences at the Roche-Mauprat. He must prove himself worthy of the woman he loves, and uncover his cousin John Mauprat's plot to inherit the family estate by having him imprisoned for the attempted murder of Edmee. Sand creates a villain who miraculously returns from the dead (304), hides in secret corridors of the Roche-Mauprat (270), disguises himself as a ghost to frighten the hero (274), assumes the role of a holy man to gain protection and public absolution for his crimes (286), conspires with his brother Anthony and the Carmelite Prior to deceive the authorities (298), tries to blackmail Bernard for the Mauprat fortune (293), and attempts to murder Edmee so that he can place the blame on Bernard (383).

                 Sand uses the Hermit of the Wood Archetype to reflect her belief in Rousseau's idea of the Noble Savage. It is Patience the Hermit who lives alone in the Gazeau Tower in the forest, and who in spite of his minimal education, displays a keener perception of Truth and Virtue than the scholars and theologians who frequently exchange ideas with him. Gazeau Tower, deserted and falling into ruins, stands in the woods "on the way to Fromental" and "is famous for the tragic death of a prisoner" whom "the executioner, on his rounds, thought good to hang him without any further formality, merely to gratify old Mauprat, his overlord" (25). The Hermit's physical strength clearly surpasses those his age, and his quest for truth supersedes his desire for worldly pleasures and comforts. Living in a dilapidated tower apart from society and enduring inclement weather, poverty, and starvation, Patience, as his name suggests, braves the elements stoically, as did Socrates. Of all the philosophers the Hermit studies, the ideas of Jean Jacques Rousseau impress him the most (32). In Rousseau's Emile, the philosopher maintains that education holds the solution to the issues of freedom in society, equality and self-awareness. Bernard alludes to Edmee's interest in this work when she was educating him at her home (179). Rousseau's idea of the Social Contract, the notion that individuals relinquish certain rights and privileges in order to ensure freedom and equality for all, strongly inspires Patience (32). Even Bernard admits that "society seemed like a vast hospital" full of weaklings, compared to "organic vigor such as is only found among animals or savages" (192). As the protagonist matures intellectually, he "passes from an excess of admiration to an excess of contempt for [Parisian] society (193). In contrast, the hero respects the American system of government and the rugged individuals fighting to maintain it (203). Finally, Rousseau's concept of the Noble Savage suggests that man lives closest to a state of moral perfection when in Nature, apart from the deleterious effects of civilization. Drawing strength and understanding from Nature, Patience discovers the truth that ultimately frees Bernard. In this respect, Patience also serves as the Wise Old Man Archetype, the one to whom most characters turn for strength or guidance. Thus, Sand manifests her faith in these precepts through the characterization of the Hermit, and the ideas that formed the foundation for the phrase "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity," the slogan and guiding principle of the French Revolution. In this respect, Sand combines psychology, Romanticism, and political philosophy to create a character as memorable as he is ennobling.

                 A psycho-analytic approach to Mauprat also serves to explain the relationship between Bernard and Edmee. Bernard functions as the frustrated Ego torn between his instinctual desires, or Id, and Edmee, the one he loves, as represented by the Superego. Edmee's role as the Muse or Soul-Mate inspires him to improve; however, he must still overcome the habits of his past and the evil associated with the family reputation. If one views the couple as one personality, Bernard would symbolize the passion of the heart, whereas Edmee would represent the principles of the mind or will, which includes ethics, spiritual direction, and the social graces. It is Edmee who recognizes that despite Bernard's lack of education and its amenities, he still possesses a soul as "great and pure as the soul of the angel" who brought him into the world (99). Just as Bernard rescues his love from the evil associated with the dark forest, so must he deliver himself subconsciously from the darkness of his evil designs. His delirium in the forest, in a sense, represents his psychological journey from the ignorance of his condition to the recognition of his need to change. In essence, the hero must confront his true nature in order to commence the initial steps in achieving spiritual and emotional adulthood. He must first understand the essence of love as an act of giving and sharing, not taking. Bernard must realize that Edmee's refusals to marry him were not based upon aversion or dislike but rather because of his selfish desire for power and physical gratification. Edmee admits that she loves him, but he must learn that love begins with mutual respect (392). She tells Bernard, "Affection cannot be commanded; it must be implored or inspired. Act so that I may always love you; never tell me that I am forced to love you" (140).

                The next phase of Bernard's transformation occurs during his visit to Edmee's home. As soon as the main character returns Edmee to her home, he acknowledges that the tenderness and familial affection showered upon her was "completely new" to him. He had never witnessed what he called "cordial relations existing between respectful plebians and kindly patricians" (92). There the "affection and generous ideas" of her father moved him so "profoundly" that he sense "a new nature awakening" within him. The realization shocks him, yet only lasts momentarily as he reverts to the cruelty of his "savage instincts" when he learns of Edmee's proposed marriage to M. de la Marche (100). At this point, the hero longs to return to the forest and his uncivilized habits, but dares not divulge these thought to the abbe and the chevalier who is paying him such kindness. Bernard says "To neither did I dare confess how wretched I felt, but when I was alone I felt inclined to roar like a caged lion; and at night I had dreams in which the moss in the woods, the curtain of forest trees, and even the gloomy battlements of Roche-Mauprat, appeared to me like an earthly paradise" (101). On another occasion during his visit there, the protagonist remarks that the uncommon kindness which everyone showed him filled him with admiration, yet made him "feel strangely ill at ease" because it "bore so little resemblance to the facetious braggadocio of the Mauprats that it seemed to me like an entirely new language, which I understood but could not speak" (102). This exposure to a different way of life begins to influence Bernard's behavior as he senses that these individuals truly care for him. M. Hubert kindly advises Bernard on the necessity of an education, and that a person must first recognize its importance before seriously devoting time to it. The father then compliments Bernard by saying, "Since you have a noble heart you cannot but have a sound mind: the desire for knowledge will come to you of itself" (102). At this, the protagonist is overwhelmed by the chevalier's warmth and affection. Near the close of the evening meal, Bernard remarks, "I began to feel the charm of these gentle manners in proportion as I had ceased to be astonished at them. The never-failing goodness of the chevalier could not but overcome my boorishness; nay, more, it rapidly won my heart. This was the first affection of my life. It took up its abode in me side by side with a violent love for his daughter, nor did I even dream of pitting one of these feelings against the other. I was all yearning, all instinct, all desire. I had the passions of a man in the soul of a child" (103). This new experience of loving and being loved, coupled with an unbearable sense of inadequacy and an earnest desire to improve, marks the turning point in the hero's transformation. At this phase, the main character begins to trust M. Hubert and the abbe.

             Bernard also changes his attitude toward the hermit Patience. As a youth, Bernard and two other boys believed the tales of Patience's being a sorcerer who "hated the gentry" and gladly would have witnessed the hanging of their Grandfather Tristan and all his sons (35). One evening, acting on a dare, the three boys fearfully approach Patience's home, and in response to the Hermit's welcome, Bernard hurled a stone that "whistled past the hermit's ear and struck Patience's pet owl. Angry, the hermit grabbed the thirteen-year-old, shook him "like a young tree about to be sprouted, and demand[ed] an explanation." Haughty and defiant, Bernard identified himself and threatened him saying "I am Bernard Mauprat, and that a peasant who lays hands on a nobleman deserves death!" (38). Angry, the hermit bound the arrogant youth to a tree and spanked him heartily. Adding to the culprit's humiliation, Patience tied his dead and bleeding owl above the lad's head so that as he was being punished physically, the blood dripping upon his head was causing him "unspeakable horror" (39). Ironically, it was Edmee's fondness for Patience that induced Bernard to overlook this embarrassing incident and view the hermit with kindness and respect (126). Patience's fatherly love for Edmee compels the hero to repent of his earlier reproachable conduct. During their walks in nature, Edmee, Patience, and Bernard discuss history, literature, and philosophy; and it is Patience's insight and enthusiasm that most impresses them. As Bernard recounts, "He saw in the starry firmament all the gods of Olympus, the fathers of primitive humanity. In the constellations he read the story of the golden age, and of the ages of brass; in the winter wind he heard the songs of Morven, and in the storm-clouds he bowed to the ghosts of Fingal and Comala" (128-129). Patience later becomes the close friend who encourages Bernard's relationship with Edmee (147) instead of the insensitive M. de la Marche (149). He also urges Bernard to become a friend of the people during a period of imminent revolution. This would teach him leadership capabilities and earn the public's respect (150-151). Because of his wise