Death-and-Rebirth in Dostoyevsky's  The Devils

        "My immortality is necessary if only because God would not do anything unjust to extinguish completely the flame of love for him once kindled in my heart. And what is more precious than love? Love is higher than existence. Love is the crown of existence. And how is it possible that existence should not be subjected to it? If I have come to love Him and rejoice in my love—is it possible that He should extinguish both me and my joy and turn us into nothingness? If God exists, then I, too, am immortal!" This passage from Fyodor's Dostoyevsky's Devils affirms the author's faith in God and man. In contrast, the author indicts the rising popularity of socialism by portraying it as an atheistic ideology promoting equality at the expense of human dignity. Dostoyevsky expresses his fears for Russia by illustrating how easily unscrupulous individuals can capitalize on the idealism of others through manipulation and deceit, often at the cost of innocent lives, As protagonist Stepan Verkhovensky recounts the events of his life, the aged hero realizes that the presence of love, as man's highest goal, proves the existence of God and motivates men toward forgiveness and understanding of one another, not political philosophy or personal gain. The hero and persona for Dostoyevsky tells his devoted friends, "God is necessary to me if only because he is the only being whom one can love eternally" (655). The dying gentleman recognizes the promise that despite one's losses in this earthly life, there exists a purer unceasing love in the hereafter, and that it is man's duty to cherish every moment as a blessing. Stepan observes that this is "the law that is hidden deep down in his nature" (656). Like Plato, the author suggests that "the mere presence of the everlasting idea of the existence of something infinitely more just and happy" should fill men "with abiding tenderness and glory." The knowledge and belief that a place of perfection and happiness exists for those who "bow down" before that supremely infinite force should fill man with gratitude and joy. All men, the author suggests, must acknowledge this principle of humility in order for the process of spiritual transformation is to occur; otherwise, man can only expect despair from life. Stepan tells Lisa in the final stage of his life, "I kneel to everything that was beautiful in my life. I kiss and offer up thanks!" (535). The cycle of death-and-rebirth must transpire in the hero for him to realize his purpose in the Divine Plan which Verkhovensky calls the Great Idea (656). Only then can the protagonist commence the psychological transition from innocence to awareness.

            Dostoyevsky uses the character of Stepan Verkhovensky to represent the traditional values that he espouses. The elder Verkhovensky serves as teacher, mentor, tragic figure, and symbolic optimism for Russia. This older protagonist inspires Stavrogin when he was a youth (53-54), Lisa Drozdov (83, 177), Ivan Shatov (150), and Dasha Shatov (174). Verkhovensky serves as a kind of father to all (46). Varvara Stavrogen shows her love for Stepan when she tries to persuade him to marry Dasha in order to keep her son Nicholas from ruining the young girl's life. Mrs. Stavrogin realizes that Verkhovensky would treat her with the love and affection that she deserves. Stepan nobly agrees to marry Miss Shatov even if it means "covering another man's sins" (133). Out of devotion to Varvara, the hero consents to marry another, yet honestly confesses his love for Mrs. Stavrogin (134). Dostoyevsky calls Stepan "a man of high principles" (88), a "most excellent man"(22), a "Gulliver among Lilliputians" (22), and a "patriarch" (33). The elder gentleman despises the idle theories of the gentry, and suggests that Russians should live by their own labor. Verkhovensky rejects the notion of nationalism, and tells Liputin that Russians "must first of all have work—our own work, our own initiative, our own experience!" Stepan tells his friends that people cannot expect to "get something for nothing" (50-51), and that this illusive nationalism in Russia is an upper class invention, a delusion, or premature notion. As Dostoyevsky's persona, the older teacher tells his young listeners that Russia's future depends upon their modeling their practices upon the virtues of past heroes who knew a "how to love their people, suffer for them, sacrifice for them," and at the same time, how to remain aloof from them and "not curry favor with them in certain matters" (52). One need not patronize virtue. Here the author reflects his conservative faith in his country and his God. Verkhovensky cannot tolerate deceit even in his son Peter and as result, throws him out of his house, calls him a "monster," and places a father's curse upon him (311-312). Stepan cares for Varvara Stavrogin, whom he realizes is sacrificing her integrity to appeal to the liberal views of the younger generation. Believing the socialist cause is unworthy of her attention, he calls it "a mess of pottage," alluding to Jacob's betrayal of his brother Essau for his father's blessing and birthright (344). Psychologically, the hero recognizes his need to separate himself from Stavrogin in order for his spiritual and emotional transformation to occur. The aged protagonist's quest alone on the road corresponds with Don Quixote's picaresque adventures in La Mancha. In fact, Dostoyevsky sympathizes with Verkhovensky, and refers to him as "a true knight" (345), a "poor old friend," and a "good old friend" (434). Mistaken for his deceitful son, Stepan suffers at the hands of the police who threaten him and seize his papers. Speaking for the author, Mr. G-v, narrator and close companion, feels "sorry" for Verkhovensky (425-429). The hero's aversion for the socialist rhetoric compels him to leave his son's meeting early (459) and proclaim the "stupidity" of the gathering itself at Mrs. Lemke's fete (483). He attacks the "nihilists" and the "new men" there (642). In essence, Stepan's revulsion for the machinations of his son parallels the author's antipathy for a Godless, impractical theory that imposters promote for personal gain, under the guise of equality. Verkhovensky expresses his fear for his country's future when he tells Lisa, "I'm running away from a nightmare, from a delirious dream. I'm running away to find Russia" (535). Here the author suggests that men of virtue and integrity no longer command respect in his country. In his letter to Dasha Shatov, Stepan says, "But you will be told that in our Russia, which is so poor in men of character, one plucky man got up and, in spite of the dire threats hurled at him on every side, told those little fools the truth . . . The die is cast; I am going from this town for good . . . Everyone I loved has turned away from me" (489). This passage signifies both his courage and his sense of loss and betrayal. As Stepan addresses the audience at Mrs. Lemke's fete, he declares that the youth of his day have fallen prey to the illusion that socialism can fulfill man's aesthetic needs: "The whole misunderstanding has arisen only round the question what is more beautiful: Shakespeare or a pair of boots, Raphael or petroleum!" (483). The aging prophet tells them that civilizations are founded upon beauty, not social or economic equality. Men's dreams derive from man's quest for the ideal, not emancipation of the serfs or a new nationalism or socialism (484). In the absence of artistic endeavors, man no longer manifests the desire to achieve. Stepan courageously tells his audience, "The whole mystery is there, the whole of history there! Even science could not exist a moment without beauty" (484). Here Dostoyevsky suggests that science and freedom cannot provide spiritual or emotional fulfillment. Only love inspires man to transcend the unattainable (484), forgive as he is forgiven (638), and partake of the divinity of God (655). In essence, Verkhovensky serves as a tragic victim whom others recognize for his greatness of heart and sensitivity ironically during his final moments. Then, sadly Mrs. Stavrogin acknowledges the love she bears for him, a love that he had openly professed to her more than once throughout their many years of friendship (651). Following the police's seizure of his personal papers and his growing fear of exile, Stepan burst into tears of anguish. Speaking through the persona of Mr. G-v, the author laments Verkhovensky's tragic betrayal: "This was the man whom we had looked upon as a prophet for twenty years. A preacher, a teacher, a patriarch. The Kukolnik who had borne himself so grandly and majestically before us all, whom we regarded with such admiration, thinking it an honor to do so—and suddenly this man was sobbing like a naughty little child who is waiting for his teacher's return with the cane. I felt awfully sorry for him"(429).

            Dostoyevsky also explores the process through which characters attempt to reconcile the guilt and suffering that deprives them of inner peace. Like the hubris of Greek drama, a character's excessive pride often obstructs his passage from loss to redemption. The desire for forgiveness frequently overshadows his ability to repress past crimes, and in many cases, manifests itself in neurotic behavior in one form or another. Fits of depression, withdrawal, hysteria, and even violence often characterize abnormal symptoms of this nature. The lie of another of Dostoyevsky's victims, Nicholas Stavrogin, fits this pattern. Stavrogin experiences intense guilt and humiliation following the suicide of a young girl whom he had raped and abandoned. In desperation, the subject tells Tikhon, the holy man, "The main thing was that I was bored with life, sick and tired to death of it. I should have completely forgotten the incident in Gorokhovaya Street after the danger had passed just as I had forgotten everything else that happened at the time, if I had not kept remembering angrily what a coward I had been" (693). This tragic event triggers a mental breakdown resulting in his moral collapse, and violent, irrational behavior. Unable to explain the nature of his sadistic tendencies, the young man refuses to repent, and chooses rather to project his guilt upon society in an attempt to justify his seemingly meaningless existence (693). After his affair with young Matryosha, the girl feels as if she "had committed a terrible crime and was guilty of a mortal sin" which had "killed God" (688). Tragically, Stavrogin experiences the same despair and suffers for it the remainder of his life. His subsequent acts of defiance, however, manifest themselves in deeds of social and moral perfidy. The youthful profligate realizes that repressing his guilt only induces more suffering and violence, a fear recurring in dreams of self-persecution (676-677). The subject compensates for his feelings of inferiority by demonstrating a supercilious refusal to accept the pity of others because society's clemency can in no way satisfy the demands of eternal justice. Stavrogin tells Tikhon the holy man that he would prefer to incite the public's hatred, for that would "make things easier" for him. The protagonist perceives life in its eternal perspective, and for him, the approval of men is immaterial (700). Through time, as the weight of his guilt increases, the subject's despair grows unbearable, and he hangs himself. In essence, the hero's rebellious nature ironically condemns him to his own form of existential justice (668).

           Ironically, Stavrogin possesses several distinctly heroic traits that serve to enhance the subject's spiritual and emotional suffering. Speaking through Mr. G-v, Dostoyevsky compares Stavrogin with "certain gentlemen long since dead, about whom some legendary stories have been preserved," such as one who "looked for danger all his life, would fight a duel for no reason at all," hunt bears in Siberia with only a knife, or meet escaped convicts more terrible than bears. The single most noteworthy characteristics would be their utter fearlessness, their "continual flush of victory," and "the consciousness that no one in the world could conquer them." Dostoyevsky regrets that the present "nervous, tortured, and dichotomous nature" of Russian people is "incompatible" with those ancient heroes (212). Mr. G-v describes Stavrogin as one whose "malice was cold, calm, and if may put it that way, rational, which means that it was the most abominable and the most terrible kind of malice" (213). Nicholas makes every attempt to avoid the duel with Gaganov and even apologizes (239). The author emphasizes how Stavrogin suffered from "dark and stormy impulses" even as a youth (199). The guilt he suffers over his cruel mistreatment of the young girl manifests itself in "a life of mad dissipation" (54) and cruelty (260). In an attempt to conceal his suffering, Nicholas projects an air of gentility, yet his expression betrays the "hideous appearance of a mask" (56-57). Sadly, the subject's anguish assumes the form of malevolence that he struggles to overcome throughout his life. Stavrogin's remorse also contributes to his loss of faith. Shatov asks Nicholas if he recalls his statement that "An atheist cannot be a Russian," and their discussion on the distinction between Catholicism and Christianity. To this, Nicholas acknowledges that his earlier views now "make an extremely unpleasant impression" (255). The young man's deviant behavior in Paris and infamous marriage founded on "absurdity" further demonstrate the madness and moral indifference the subject undergoes as result of his mental confusion. Shatov even compares Stavrogin's perversity to that of the Marquis de Sade (260).

             The Devils traces Stavrogin's quest for fulfillment as he undergoes the transformation from innocence to awareness. His initial experience with crime leaves an indelible impression that condemns him psychologically to a life of torment. Ultimately, Stavrogin confronts his problem and demands nothing short of what he deserves. Stavrogin realizes that the measure of one's greatness depends upon his capacity to endure the travails of life, but even in this recognition, he senses the hypocritical nature of his pride at having persevered (700). During a period of moral confusion, Nicholas succumbs to the temptations of socialist advocate Peter Verkhovensky (225). Fortunately, he later realizes the flaws of this "fairy tale" ideology that Verkhovensky contrives for his own benefit (388). In anguish, the now wiser Stavrogin acknowledges his need to forgive himself and craves forgiveness from Tikhon (702). Nicholas perceives himself as a "loathsome insect" (668-669). He confesses his sins before the monk and expresses his intention of making his crimes known (682). Nevertheless, Tikhon sadly realizes that he cannot elicit a statement of repentance from the desperate subject. As a result, Stavrogin rushes angrily from the holy man's cell, suggesting that he alone will choose his fate (704). Like Faust, he must make the choice. He, therefore, accepts full responsibility for his death, as well as his destiny.

              Kirolov, a structural engineer, also suffers as a tragic victim of Peter Verkhovensky's socialist propaganda. In a conversation with Nicholas Stavrogin, Kirolov affirms his faith in the goodness of man through his theory of a single leaf. Kirolov explains how as a youth he would shut his eyes and behold the beauty of a single leaf, and from it infer the goodness of all creation. The subject's perception of the beauty from nature proves to him the existence of beauty in all mankind. In this respect, Kirolov's theory is quite similar to Stepan Verkhovensky's concept of aesthetic beauty in man. Kirolov tells Stavrogin that the individual must first realize his inherent goodness in order to live a happy or meaningful existence. Once one reaches this point of awareness, he suddenly becomes thankful for all aspects of life, and his heart is filled with gratitude. Kirolov tells Nicholas, "I pray to everything. Look there; a spider crawling on the wall—I look at it and am grateful to it for crawling." The engineer tells him that people are evil only "because they don't know that they are good," but when they discover the truth, they no longer commit immoral acts such as "raping a little girl" (244). Here Kirolov attempts to persuade Stavrogin to forgive himself for his attack on the young girl. Kirolov recognizes the extent of his friend's guilt and suffering; however, Stavrogin only feels disgust for his appeal (245). Kirolov professes his belief that all mankind will ultimately "achieve happiness" (243). Here, Dostoyevsky uses Kirolov's optimism to reflect his own faith in humanity. The engineer's concept of time also adds to the scope of man's love and appreciation of life because only through a person's remembrance of those impressive moments can his existence appear meaningful. Kirolov expresses an existential twist to his theory by suggesting that during these moments of apprehension, time "suddenly stops, and will become eternal" (242). The author's emphasis on the present rather than the future contributes an even greater sense of urgency to Kirolov's message because it encourages Stavrogin to seize those unforgettable events that affirm his existence. Through the years, these moments live on indelibly in the mind, frequently recurring, and transcending time and space. Dostoyevsky contrasts Kirolov with Peter Verkhovensky to show the engineer's moral superiority. Kirolov willingly sacrifices his life for what he believes is a noble cause (375-376), but Verkhovensky leaves immediately following Shatov's brutal murder (622). Kirilov realizes Peter's ulterior motive in killing Shatov, and the deceit Verkhovensky employs in betraying the Group of Five and the Spigulin factory workers (607). Kirolov denounces Peter as a liar and thief of one hundred-twenty thalers he donated for the socialist cause and the accused cannot deny it (377-379).

            Kirolov also serves as a tragic victim of Peter Verkhovensky's insidiousness. Feeling betrayed by the socialist cause, its leadership, and its crimes, especially the murder of Shatov, Kirolov loses all faith in God and man. In his final conversation with Verkhovensky, Kirolov says that if God will not spare His own son but "made Him live in the midst of lies and die for a lie, then the whole planet is a lie and is based on a lie and a stupid mockery." He tells Peter that without Christ, existence in this world is "sheer madness" (614). If even the laws of nature cannot even spare the life of Jesus, God's greatest miracle, then life is futile. "The very laws of the planet are a lie and a farce of the devil. What, then, is there to live for?" Kirolov asks Verkhovensky. Tragically, the young engineer's faith turns to despair, and he begins to doubt the existence of God as well. Kirolov reasons that if there is a God, man can do nothing to alter His will, but if no God exists, then man must courageously employ his own self-will (612). The act of suicide, for him, constitutes this ultimate act of free-will (612). In his confusion, Kirolov concludes that men invented God as an excuse to keep from killing themselves, and that he is the only man in universal history bold enough to refuse to invent Him. In desperation, Kirolov considers suicide his only noble alternative. In essence, the engineer begins with an affirmation of man's goodness, yet ends with the loss of hope. For a brief time, he witnesses Shatov's spiritual rebirth, only to see the young man's life and dreams shattered by the senseless